CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Interrelationships of ICT innovations and changes in transport demand have been debated for more than threedecades (Line et al. 2011; Salomon 1986; Senbil and Kitamura 2003; Thomopoulos, Givoni and Rietveld 2015;Wagner et al. 2004). The basis of discussions has however changed fundamentally over time, as ICT opportunitiesconstantly evolved, specifically with the development of the smartphone. Wagner et al. (2004) and Banister and Stead(2004) were the first to comprehensively discuss the complexity of ICT and transport interrelationships, consideringICT demand responses as well as spatial and temporal distribution outcomes. Specifically, this included ‘living’,‘working’ and ‘producing’, the latter comprising logistics, manufacturing systems, customized services, retailing anddistribution, tele-shopping, distance working and self-employment. Wagner et al. (2004) and Banister and Stead(2004) concluded that ICT would stimulate travel, as new ‘opportunities’ for transport became available, though ICTwould also substitute for travel, as a growing number of tasks could be carried out at-a-distance.A refined understanding of ICT, social (media) networks and travel was presented by Carrasco and Miller (2006), whofound that transport demand depends on the social importance of the contacts in the network, as well as physicaldistances to social activities. Evidence of transport demand growth as a result of mobile phone use was laterpresented by Nobis and Lenz (2009), who found that changes in life circumstances triggered changes in mobilephone use and travel behavior. Notably, at the time of these studies, the authors still focused on the implications ofmobile phone, regular phone and email use: Smartphones and their opportunities (apps, chats) as well as socialmedia had not as yet made a mass-market entry. This affirms that less than a decade ago, studies investigating ICTand transport interrelationships still had a starting point in considerably more limited technologies and opportunitiesfor use. In one of the more recent studies, Line et al. (2011) investigated students and part-time working mothers.They found that new technologies were embedded quickly in everyday routines, as communication opportunitiesallowed for the re-scheduling and adjusting of activities and their co-ordination and organization in time and space.Social media (in particular Facebook) was identified as an important factor in the expansion of social networks,including invitations to social events and the revival of old friendships.Line et al. (2011) concluded that while ICT affected communication patterns, its implications for transport demandchange appeared to be more limited. A notable exception was long-distance relationships maintained throughFacebook, which necessitate occasional personal meetings (Larsen et al. 2006). Line et al. (2011) also noted theimportance of mobile technologies for ‘inhabiting’ space, i.e. the use of mobile phones for navigation or listening tothe radio, as well as their potential to both “fragment” and “lubricate” life (ibid: 1498). Aguiléra, Guillot and Rallet(2012) added to this that ICT improved public transport experiences, security perceptions, and the possibility to maketravel time more productive (see also Wang and Law 2007), while Cohen-Blankshtain and Rotem-Mindali (2016)more recently affirmed that ICT influence perceptions of distance, accessibility and availability.Aguiléra et al. (2012) provided new insights regarding the potential of ICT innovations to stimulate and substitutetransport demand. Of particular importance is their finding that ICT changes the nature of transport demand, as itadds “new value to physical presence” (Aguiléra et al. 2012: 666). In their view, travel no longer addressesinstrumental needs; it makes up for 3 “relational deficits”. This is confirmed by Cohen-Blankshtain and Rotem-Mindali(2016) who noted that ICT lead to some travel substitution, though both physical and virtual activity types grow.

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